ABack |
Abstract — brief summary of what is in an article A-B-A design — a single-case experimental design in which the response to the experimental treatment condition is compared to baseline responses taken before and after administering the treatment condition A-B-A-B design — an A-B-A design that is extended to include the reintroduction of the treatment condition Accessible population — the research participants who are available for participation in the research Achievement tests — tests that are designed to measure the degree of learning that has taken place after person has been exposed to a specific learning experience Acquiescence response set — tendency to either agree or to disagree Across-stage mixed model research — quantitative and qualitative approaches are mixed across at least two of the stages of research Action research — applied research focused on solving practitioner’s local problems Active consent — a process whereby consent is provided by signing a consent form (compare to passive consent) Additive and interactive effects — refers to the fact that the threats to internal validity can combine to produce an additive or multiplicative bias Alpha level — see significance level Alternative hypothesis — statement that the population parameter is some value other than the value stated by the null hypothesis Ambiguous temporal precedence — the inability to specify which variable is the cause and which is the effect Amount technique — manipulating the independent variable by giving the various comparison groups different amounts of the independent variable Analysis of covariance — a statistical method that can be used to statistically equate groups that differ on a pretest or some other variable; a statistical method that used to examine the relationship between one categorical independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable controlling for one or more extraneous variables Analysis of variance — see one-way analysis of variance Anchor — a written descriptor for a point on a rating scale Anonymity — keeping the identity of the participant from everyone, including the researcher Applied research — research focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions A priori codes — codes that were developed before examining the current data Aptitude tests — tests that focus on information acquired through the informal learning that goes on in life Archived research data — data originally used for research purposes and then stored Assent — agreeing to participate after being informed of all the features of the study that could affect the participant’s willingness to participate Assessment — gathering and integrating data to make educational evaluations Attrition — loss of people who do not complete the experiment Axial coding — the second stage in grounded theory data analysis |
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BBack |
Backstage behavior — what people say and do only with their closest friends Bar graph — a graph that uses vertical bars to represent the data Baseline — the behavior of the participant prior to the administration of a treatment condition Basic research — research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes Biased sample — a sample that is systematically different from the population Boolean operators — words used to create logical combinations Bracket — to suspend your preconceptions or learned feelings about a phenomenon |
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CBack |
Carryover effect — a sequencing effect that occurs when performance in one treatment condition is influenced by participation in a prior treatment condition(s) Case — a bounded system Case study research — a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account and analysis of one or more cases Categorical variable — a variable that varies in type or kind Causal-comparative research — a form of nonexperimental research in which the primary independent variable of interest is a categorical variable Causal description — describing the consequences of manipulating an independent variable Causal explanation — explaining the mechanisms through which and the conditions under which a causal relationship holds Causal modeling — a form of explanatory research where the researcher hypothesizes a causal model and then empirically tests the model. Also called structural equation modeling or theoretical modeling. Causal-comparative research — a form of nonexperimental research where the primary independent variable of interest is categorical Cause and effect relationship — relationship in which one variable affects another variable Cell — a combination of two or more independent variables in a factorial design Census — a study of the whole population rather than a sample Changing-criterion design — a single-case experimental design in which a participant’s behavior is gradually altered by changing the criterion for success during successive treatment periods Checklist — a list of response categories that respondents check if appropriate Chi-square test for contingency tables — statistical test used to determine whether a relationship observed in a contingency table is statistically significant CIJE — an annotated index of articles from educational journals Closed-ended question — a question that forces participants to choose a response Cluster — a collective type of unit that includes multiple elements Cluster sampling — type of sampling in which clusters are randomly selected Coding — marking segments of data with symbols, descriptive words, or category names Coefficient alpha — a formula that provides an estimate of the reliability of a homogeneous test or an estimate of the reliability of each dimension in a multidimensional test Cohort — any group of people with a common classification or common characteristic Collective case study — studying multiple cases in one research study Compatibility thesis — the idea that quantitative and qualitative methods are compatible Complete participant — researcher becomes member of group being studied and does not tell members they are being studied Complete-observer — researcher observes as an outsider and does not tell the people they are being observed Comprehensive sampling — including all cases in the research study Concurrent validity evidence — validity evidence based on the relationship between test scores and criterion scores obtained at the same time Confidence interval — a range of numbers inferred from the sample that has a certain probability or chance of including the population parameter Confidence limits — the endpoints of a confidence interval Confidentiality — not revealing the identity of the participant to anyone other than the researcher and his or her staff Confounding variable — a type of extraneous variable that was not controlled for and is the reason a particular “confounded” result is observed; a confounding variable systematically varies with the independent variable and also influences the dependent variable Constant — a single value or category of a variable Constant comparative method — data analysis in grounded theory research Construct validity — the extent to which a higher-order construct is represented in a particular study Content-related evidence — validity evidence based on a judgment of the degree to which the items, tasks, or questions on a test adequately represent the construct domain of interest Contextualization – the identification of when and where an event took place Contingency question — an item that directs participants to different follow-up questions depending on their response Contingency table — a table displaying information in cells formed by the intersection of two or more categorical variables Control group — the group that does not receive the experimental treatment condition Convenience sampling — people who are available, volunteer, or can be easily recruited are included in the sample Convergent evidence — validity evidence based on the relationship between the focal test scores and independent measures of the same construct Co-occurring codes — sets of codes that partially or completely overlap Correlation coefficient — an index that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables Correlational research — a form of nonexperimental research in which the primary independent variable of interest is a quantitative variable Corroboration – comparing documents to each other to determine whether they provide the same information or reach the same conclusion Counterbalancing — administering the experimental treatment conditions to all comparison groups, but in a different order Criterion — the standard or benchmark that you want to predict accurately on the basis of the test scores Criterion of falsifiability — the property that statements and theories should be refutable Criterion-related validity evidence — validity evidence based on the extent to which scores from a test can be used to predict or infer performance on some criterion such as a test or future performance Critical case sampling — selecting what are believed to be particularly important cases Critical theory — see orientational research Cronbach’s alpha — see coefficient alpha Cross-case analysis — searching for similarities and differences across multiple cases Cross-sectional research — data are collected at a single point in time Culture — a system of shared beliefs, values, practices, perspectives, folk knowledge, language, norms, rituals, and material objects and artifacts that the members of a group use in understanding their world and in relating to others Current index to journals in education — see CIJE |
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DBack |
Data set — a set of data Data triangulation — the use of multiple data sources Debriefing — a poststudy interview in which all aspects of the study are revealed, any reasons for deception are explained, and any questions the participant has about the study are answered. Deception — misleading or withholding information from the research participant Deductive reasoning — the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises Deductive method — a top-down or confirmatory approach to research Dehoaxing — informing study participants about any deception used and the reasons for its use Deontological approach — an ethical approach tat says ethical issues must be judged on the basis of some universal code Dependent variable — a variable that is presumed to be influenced by one or more independent variables Description — attempting to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon Descriptive validity — the factual accuracy of an account as reported by the researcher Descriptive research — research focused on providing an accurate description or picture of the status or characteristics of a situation or phenomenon Descriptive statistics — statistics that focus on describing, summarizing, or explaining data Desensitizing — helping study participants deal with and eliminate any stress or other undesirable feelings that the study might have created Determinism — the proposition that all events have causes Diagnostic tests — tests designed to identify where a student is having difficulty with an academic skill Diagramming — making a sketch, drawing, or outline to show how something works or to clarify the relationship between the parts of a whole Differential attrition — a differential loss of participants from the various comparison groups; participants who drop out are different from those who stay in the study Differential influence — when the influence of an extraneous variable is different for the various comparison groups Differential selection — selecting participants for the various treatment groups that have different characteristics Direct effect — the effect of the variable at the origin of an arrow on the variable at the receiving end of the arrow Directional alternative hypothesis — an alternative hypothesis that contains either a greater than sign (>), or a less than sign (<) Discriminant evidence — evidence that the scores on your focal test are not highly related to the scores from other tests that are designed to measure theoretically different constructs Disordinal interaction effect — an interaction effect that occurs when the lines on a graph plotting the effect cross Disproportional stratified sampling — type of stratified sampling in which the sample proportions are made to be different from the population proportions on the stratification variable Double negative — a sentence construction that includes two negatives Double-barreled question — a question that combines two or more issues or attitude objects Duplicate publication — publishing the same data and results in more than one journal or in other publications |
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EBack |
Ecological validity — the ability to generalize the study results across settings Educational resources information center — see ERIC Effect size indicator — a measure of the strength of a relationship Element — the basic unit that is selected from the population Emic perspective — the insider’s perspective Emic term — a special word or term used by the people in a group Empirical — based on observation, experiment, or experience Empirical statement — a statement based on observation, experiment, or experience Empiricism — the idea that knowledge comes from experience Enumeration — the process of quantifying data Epistemology — the study of how knowledge is generated and justified Equal probability selection method — any sampling method where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Equivalent-forms reliability — the consistency of a group of individuals’ scores on two equivalent forms of a test measuring the same thing ERIC — a database containing information from CIJE and RIE Error — the difference between a person’s true score and his or her observed score Essence — the invariant structure of the experience Ethical skepticism — an ethical approach that says concrete and inviolate moral codes cannot be formulated Ethics — the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things we value Ethnocentrism — judging people from a different culture according to the standards of your own culture Ethnography — a form of qualitative research focused on describing the culture of a group of people; the discovery and comprehensive description of the culture of a group of people; it’s a form of qualitative research focused on describing the culture of a group of people Ethnohistory — the study of the cultural past of a group of people Ethnology — the comparative study of cultural groups Etic perspective — an external, social scientific view of reality Etic term — outsider’s words or special words that are used by social scientists Evaluation — determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation object Event sampling — observing only after specific events have occurred Exempt studies — studies involving no risk to participants and not requiring full IRB review Exhaustive — a set of categories that classify all of the relevant cases in the data; property that the response categories include all possible responses; they cover the complete range of data values Expectancy data — data illustrating the number or percentage of people that fall into various categories on a criterion measure Expedited review — a process by which a study is rapidly reviewed by fewer members than constitute the full IRB board Experiment — an environment in which the researcher objectively observes phenomena that are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more variables are varied and the others are kept constant Experimental group — the group that receives the experimental treatment condition Experimental control — eliminating any differential influence of extraneous variables Experimental research — research in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable Experimenter effect — the unintentional effect that the researcher can have on the outcome of a study Explanation — attempting to show how and why a phenomenon operates as it does Explanatory research — testing hypotheses and theories that explain how and why a phenomenon operates as it does Exploration — attempting to generate ideas about phenomena Extended fieldwork — collecting data in the field over an extended period of time Extraneous variable — A variable that may compete with the independent variable in explaining the outcome; any variable other than the independent variable that might influence the dependent variable External criticism — determining the validity, trustworthiness, or authenticity of the source External validity — the extent to which the study results can be generalized to and across populations of persons, settings, times, outcomes, and treatment variations; NOTE: a good synonym for external validity is “generalizing validity” because that’s what it’s about. Extreme case sampling — identifying the “extremes” or poles of some characteristic and then selecting cases representing these extremes for examination |
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FBack |
Facesheet codes — codes that apply to a complete document or case Factor analysis — a statistical procedure that analyzes correlations among test items and tells you the number of factors present. It tells you whether the test is unidimensional or multidimensional Factorial design — a design in which two or more independent variables, at least one of which is manipulated, are simultaneously studied to determine their independent and interactive effects on the dependent variable; note: participants must be randomly assigned to the levels of at least one of the independent variables. Factorial design based on a mixed model — a factorial design in which different participants are randomly assigned to the different levels of one independent variable but all participants take all levels of another independent variable Field notes — notes taken by observer Filter question — see contingency question Focus group — a moderator facilitates a discussion with a small group of people Formative evaluation — evaluation focused on improving the evaluation object Fraudulent activity — fabrication or alteration of results Frequency distribution — arrangement in which the frequencies of each unique data value are shown Frontstage behavior — what people want or allow us to see Full board review — review by all members of the IRB Fully anchored rating scale — all points are anchored on the rating scale Fundamental principle of mixed research — Advises researchers to mix research methods or procedures in a way that the resulting mixture or combination has complementary strengths and nonoverlapping weaknesses; the researcher should use a mixture or combination of methods that has complementary strengths and nonoverlapping weaknesses |
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GBack |
General linear model — a mathematical procedure that is the “parent” of many statistical techniques (see special case of the general linear model) Generalize — making statements about a population based on sample data Going native — identifying so completely with the group being studied that you can no longer remain objective Grounded theory — a qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory from the data that the researcher collects; a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed Group moderator — the person leading the focus group discussion Grouped frequency distribution — the data values are clustered or grouped into separate intervals and the frequencies of each interval are given |
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HBack |
Heterogeneous — a set of numbers with a great deal of variability Histogram — a graphic that shows the frequencies and shape that characterize a quantitative variable Historical research — research about events in the past; the process of systematically examining past events or combinations of events to arrive at an account of what happened in the past History — any event, other than a planned treatment event, that occurs between the pretest and posttest measurement of the dependent variable and influences the post measurement of the dependent variable Holism — the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts Holistic description — the description of how members of groups interact and how they come together to make up the group as a whole Homogeneity — in test validity, refers to how well the different items in a test measure the same construct or trait Homogeneous sample selection — selecting a small and homogeneous case or set of cases for intensive study Homogeneous — a set of numbers with very little variability Homogeneous test — a unidimensional test in which all the items measure a single construct Hypothesis — a prediction or educated guess Hypothesis — a prediction or guess of the relation that exists among the variables being investigated; the formal statement of the researcher’s prediction of the relationship that exists among the variables under investigation Hypothesis testing — the branch of inferential statistics that is concerned with how well the sample data support a null hypothesis and when the null hypothesis can be rejected |
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IBack |
Incompatibility thesis — the proposition that one cannot mix quantitative and qualitative research Independent variable — a variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable Indirect effect — an effect occurring through an intervening variable Inductive reasoning — reasoning from the particular to the general Inductive codes — codes that are generated by a researcher by directly examining the data Inductive method — a bottom-up or generative approach to research Inductive reasoning — reasoning from the particular to the general Inferential statistics — the division of statistics focused on going beyond the immediate data and inferring the characteristics of population based on samples; statistics that go beyond the immediate data and infer the characteristics of populations based on samples Influence — attempting to apply research to make certain outcomes occur Informal conversational interview — spontaneous, loosely structured interview Informed consent — agreeing to participate in a study after being informed of its purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, alternative procedures, and limits of confidentiality In-person interview — an interview conducted face-to-face Instrumental case study — interest is in understanding something more general than the particular case Instrumentation — any change that occurs in the way the dependent variable is measured Instrumental case study — interest is in understanding something more general than the particular case Institutional review board — see IRB Intelligence — the ability to think abstractly and to learn readily from experience Interscorer reliability — the degree of agreement or consistency between two or more scorers, judges, or raters Interaction effect — when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable Intercoder reliability — consistency among different coders Interim analysis — the cyclical process of collecting and analyzing data during a single research study Internal consistency — the consistency with which a test measures a single construct Internal criticism — the reliability or accuracy of the information contained in the sources collected Internal validity — the ability to infer that a causal relationship exists between two variables. NOTE: a good synonym for internal validity would be “causal validity” because that’s what it’s all about. Internet — a network consisting of millions of computers and tens of millions of users all over the world, all of which are interconnected to promote communication Interpretive validity — accurately portraying the meaning given by the participants to what is being studied Interrupted time-series design — a design in which a treatment condition is assessed by comparing the pattern of pretest responses with the pattern of posttest responses obtained from a single group of participants Interval scale — a scale of measurement that has equal intervals of distances between adjacent numbers Intervening variable — a variable that occurs between two other variables in a causal chain; it’s a mediating variable Interview — a data-collection method where interviewer asks the interviewee questions Interview guide approach — specific topics and/or open-ended questions are asked in any order Interview protocol — data-collection instrument used in an interview Interviewee — the person being asked questions Interviewer — the person asking the questions Intracoder reliability — consistency within a single individual Intrinsic case study — interest is in understanding a specific case Investigator triangulation — the use of multiple investigators in collecting and interpreting the data IRB — the institutional review committee that assesses the ethical acceptability of research proposals Item stem — the set of words forming a question or statement |
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KBack |
k — the size of the sampling interval used in systematic sampling Known groups evidence — evidence that groups that are known to differ on the construct do differ on the test in the hypothesized direction Kuder-Richardson formula 20 — a statistical formula used to compute an estimate of the reliability of a homogeneous test |
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LBack |
Laboratory observation — observation done in lab or other setting set up by the researcher Leading question — a question that suggests a certain answer Level of confidence — the probability that a confidence interval to be constructed from a random sample will include the population parameter Life-world — an individual’s inner world of immediate experience Likert scale — a summated rating scale (see summated rating scale) Line graph — a graph that relies on the drawing of one or more lines Loaded question — a question containing emotionally charged words Logic of significance testing — understanding and following the steps shown in Table 16.3 Longitudinal research — data are collected at multiple time points and comparisons are made across time Low-inference descriptors — description that is phrased very similarly to the participants’ accounts and the researchers’ field notes Lower limit — the smallest number on a confidence interval |
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| MBack |
Main effect — the effect of one independent variable Manipulation — an intervention studied by an experimenter Marginal mean — the mean of scores in the cells of a column or a row Margin of error — one half of the width of a confidence interval Master list — a list of all the codes used in a research study Matching — equating the comparison groups on one or more variables that are correlated with the dependent variable Matching variable — the variable the researcher uses in the control technique called matching in order to eliminate it as an alternative explanation Maturation — any physical or mental change that occurs over time in a participant and affects the participant’s performance on the dependent variable Maximum variation sampling — purposively selecting a wide range of cases Mean — the arithmetic average Measure of central tendency — the single numerical value considered most typical of the values of a quantitative variable Measure of variability — a numerical index that provides information about how spread out or how much variation is present Measurement — assigning symbols or numbers to something according to a specific set of rules Measures of relative standing — provide information about where a score falls in relation to the other scores in the distribution of data Median — the 50th percentile Mediating variable — see intervening variable Memoing — recording reflective notes about what you are learning from the data Mental Measurements Yearbook — one of the primary sources of information about published tests Meta-analysis — a quantitative technique used to integrate and describe the results of a large number of studies Method of data collection — technique for physically obtaining data to be analyzed in a research study Method of working hypotheses — attempting to identify all rival explanations Methods triangulation — the use of multiple research methods Mixed method research — research in which the researcher uses the qualitative research paradigm for one phase of a research study and the quantitative research paradigm for a different phase of the study; a quantitative phase and a qualitative phase are included in the overall research study Mixed model research — research in which the researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative research within a stage or across two of the stages in the research process; quantitative and qualitative approaches are mixed within or across the stages of the research process Mixed purposeful sampling — the mixing of more than one sampling strategy Mixed research — research in which quantitative and qualitative techniques are mixed in a single study; research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics Mode — the most frequently occurring number Moderator variable — a variable that changes the relationship between other variables; it’s a variable that is involved in an interaction effect; see interaction effect Mortality — see attrition Multigroup research design — a research design that includes more than one group of participants Multiple-baseline design — a single-case experimental design in which the treatment condition is successively administered to different participants, or to the same participant in several settings, after baseline behaviors have been recorded for different periods of time Multiple operationalism — the use of several measures of a construct Multiple regression — regression based on one dependent variable and two or more independent variables Multiple time-series design — an interrupted time-series design that includes a control group to rule out a history effect Multiple-treatment interference — occurs when participation in one treatment condition influences a person’s performance in another treatment condition Mutually exclusive — property that categories or intervals do not overlap; response categories that are separate and distinct |
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NBack |
n — the sample size N — the population size Naturalistic observation — observation done in “real world” settings Naturalistic generalization — generalizing on the basis of similarity Negative criticism – Establishing the reliability or authenticity and accuracy of the content of the documents and other sources used by the researcher Negative case sampling — selecting cases that disconfirm the researcher’s expectations and generalizations Negative correlation — the situation when scores on two variables move in opposite directions Negative-case sampling — locating and examining cases that disconfirm the researcher’s expectations Negatively skewed — skewed to the left Network diagram — a diagram showing the direct links between variables or events over time Nominal scale — a scale of measurement that uses symbols, such as words or numbers, to label, classify, or identify people or objects Nondirectional alternative hypothesis — an alternative hypothesis that includes the “not equal” sign Nonequivalent comparison-group design — a design consisting of a treatment group and a nonequivalent untreated comparison group both of which are administered pretest and posttest measures Nonexperimental research — research in which the independent variable is not manipulated and there is no random assignment to groups Normal distribution — a unimodal, symmetric, bell-shaped distribution that is the theoretical model of many variables Norming group — the specific group for which the test publisher or researcher provides evidence for test validity and reliability Norms — the written and unwritten rules that specify appropriate group behavior Null hypothesis — a statement about a population parameter Numerical rating scale — a rating scale with anchored endpoints |
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OBack |
Observation — unobtrusive watching of behavioral patterns of people Observer-as-participant — researcher spends limited about of time observing group members and tells members they are being studied Official documents — anything written, photographed, or recorded by an organization One-group pretest-posttest design — a research design in which a treatment condition is administered to one group of participants after pretesting, but before posttesting on the dependent variable One-group posttest-only design — administering a posttest to a single group of participants after they have been given an experimental treatment condition One-stage cluster sampling — a set of clusters is randomly selected and all of the elements in the selected clusters are included in the sample One-way analysis of variance — statistical test used to compare two or more group means Open coding — the first stage in grounded theory data analysis Open-ended question — a question that allows participants to respond in their own words Operationalism — representing constructs by a specific set of steps or operations Opportunistic sampling — selecting cases when the opportunity occurs Oral histories — interviews with a person who has had direct or indirect experience with or knowledge of the chosen topic Order effect — a sequencing effect that occurs from the order in which the treatment conditions are administered Ordinal interaction effect — an interaction effect that occurs when the lines on a graph plotting the effect do not cross Ordinal scale — a rank-order scale of measurement Orientational research — research done for the purpose of advancing an ideological position. Sometimes called critical theory research. Outcome validity — the ability to generalize across different but related dependent variables Outlier — a number that is very atypical of the other numbers in a distribution |
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PBack |
Panel study — study in which the same individuals are studied at successive points over time Paradigm — see research paradigm Parameter — a numerical characteristic of a population Partial correlation — used to examine the relationship between two quantitative variables controlling for one or more quantitative extraneous variables Partially spurious — when the relationship between two variables is partially due to one or more third variable Partial correlation — used to examine the relationship between two quantitative variables controlling for one or more quantitative extraneous variables Partial publication — publishing several articles from the data collected in one large study; is generally not unethical for large studies Partial regression coefficient — the regression coefficient obtained in multiple regression Participant feedback — discussion of the researcher’s conclusions with the actual participants Participant-as-observer — researcher spends extended time with the group as an insider and tells members they are being studied Passive consent — a process whereby consent is given by not returning the consent form (compare to active consent) Path coefficient — a quantitative index providing information about a direct effect Pattern matching — predicting a pattern of results and determining whether the actual results fit the predicted pattern Peer review — discussing one’s interpretations and conclusions with one’s peers or colleagues Percentile rank — the percentage of scores in a reference group that fall below a particular raw score; percentile ranks divide a distribution into 100 equal parts Performance measures — a test-taking method in which the participants perform some real-life behavior that is observed by the researcher Periodicity — the presence of a cyclical pattern in the sampling frame Personal documents — anything written, photographed, or recorded for private purposes Personality — the relatively permanent patterns that characterize and can be used to classify individuals Phenomenology — a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon; the description of one or more individuals’ consciousness and experience of a phenomenon Physical data — any material thing created or left behind by humans that might provide information about a phenomenon of interest to a researcher Pilot test — a preliminary test of your questionnaire Point estimate — the estimated value of a population parameter Point estimation — the use of the value of a sample statistic as the estimate of the value of a population parameter Population — the complete set of cases; it’s the large group to which a researcher wants to generalize the sample results Population validity — the ability to generalize the study results to individuals who were not included in the study Positive correlation — the situation when scores on two variables move in the same direction Positive criticism — ensuring that the statements made or the meaning conveyed in the various sources is correct Positively skewed — skewed to the right Post hoc fallacy — making the argument that because A preceded B, A must have caused B Post hoc test — a follow-up test to the analysis of variance Posttest-only control-group design — administering a posttest to two randomly assigned groups of participants after one group has been administered the experimental treatment condition Posttest-only with nonequivalent groups design — comparing posttest performance of a group of participants who have been given an experimental treatment condition with a group that has not been given the experimental treatment condition Power — the likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false Practical significance — a conclusion made when a relationship is strong enough to be of practical importance Pragmatism — the philosophical position that what works is what is important Pragmatist philosophy — a philosophy that says to use what works Prediction — attempting to predict or forecast a phenomenon Predictive research — research focused on predicting the future status of one or more dependent variables based on one or more independent variables Predictive validity evidence — validity evidence based on the relationship between test scores collected at one point in time and criterion scores occurring at a later time Presence or absence technique — manipulating the independent variable by presenting one group the treatment condition and withholding it from the other group Presentism – the assumption that the present-day connotations of terms also existed in the past Pretest-posttest control-group design — a research design that administers a posttest to two randomly assigned groups of participants after both have been pretested and one of the groups has been administered the experimental treatment condition Primary source — a source in which the creator was a direct witness or in some other way directly involved or related to the event Primary data — original data collected as a part of a research study Principle of evidence — the philosophical idea that research provides evidence, not proof Probabilistic — stating what is likely to occur, not necessarily what will occur Probabilistic cause — changes in variable A tend to produce changes in variable B; it’s a cause that usually produces an outcome Probability value — the probability of the result of your research study, or an even more extreme result, assuming that the null hypothesis is true Probability proportional to size — a type of two-stage cluster sampling where each cluster’s chance of being selected in stage one depends on its population size Probes — prompts to obtain response clarity or additional information Problem of induction — things that happened in the past might not happen in the future Projective measures — a test-taking method in which the participants provide responses to ambiguous stimuli Proportional stratified sampling — type of stratified sampling in which the sample proportions are made to be the same as the population proportions on the stratification variable Prospective study — another term applied to a panel study Purpose of a research study — a statement of the researcher’s intent or objective of the study Purposive sampling — the researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of interest and locates individuals with those characteristics |
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QBack |
Qualitative interview — an interview providing qualitative data Qualitative observation — observing all potentially relevant phenomena Qualitative research — research relying primarily on the collection of qualitative data Qualitative research question — an interrogative sentence that asks a question about some process, issue, or phenomenon to be explored Qualitative researcher — a researcher who focuses on exploration or theory generation using qualitative data Qualitizing — converting quantitative data into qualitative data Quantitative interview — an interview providing qualitative data Quantitative observation — standardized observation Quantitative variable — a variable that varies in degree or amount Quantitative research — research that relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data Quantitative research question — an interrogative sentence that asks a question about the relationship that exists between two or more variables Quantitative researcher — a traditional researcher who focuses on testing hypotheses using quantitative data Quantitizing — converting qualitative data into quantitative data Quasi-experimental research design — an experimental research design that does not provide for full control of potential confounding variables primarily because it does not randomly assign participants to comparison groups Questionnaire — a self-report data collection instrument filled out by research participants Quota sampling — the researcher determines the appropriate sample sizes or quotas for the groups identified as important and takes convenience samples from those groups |
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RBack |
Random assignment — a procedure that makes assignments to conditions on the basis of chance and in this way maximizes the probability that the comparison groups will be equated on all extraneous variables Random selection — randomly selecting a group of people from a population Range — the difference between the highest and lowest numbers Ranking — the ordering of responses into ascending or descending order Rate — the percentage of people in a group who have a specific characteristic Rating scale — a continuum of response choices Ratio scale — a scale of measurement that has a true zero point as well as the characteristics of the nominal (labeling), ordinal (rank ordering), and interval (equal distance) scales Rationalism — the philosophical idea that reason is the primary source of knowledge Reactivity — an alteration in performance that occurs in people as a result of being aware of participating in a study Reference group — the norm group that is used to determine the percentile ranks Reflexivity — self-reflection by the researcher on his or her biases and predispositions Regression analysis — a set of statistical procedures used to explain or predict the values of a dependent variable on the basis of the values of one or more independent variables Regression artifacts —the tendency of very high scores to become lower and very low scores to become higher on posttesting of other or the original measure Regression coefficient — the predicted change in Y given a one unit change in X Regression-discontinuity design — a design that assesses the effect of a treatment condition by looking for a discontinuity in regression lines between individuals who score lower and higher than some predetermined cutoff score Regression line — the line that best fits a pattern of observations Regression equation — the equation that defines the regression line Reliability — the consistency or stability of test scores Reliability coefficient —a correlation coefficient that is used as an index of reliability Repeated sampling — drawing many or all possible samples from a population Repeated-measures design — a design in which all participants participate in all experimental treatment conditions Replication logic — the idea that the more times a research finding is shown to be true with different sets of people, the more confidence we can place in the finding and in generalizing beyond the original participants Replication — research examining the same variables with different people and, often, in slightly different ways Representative sample — a sample that resembles the population Research design — the outline, plan, or strategy used to answer a research question Research ethics — a set of principles to guide and assist researchers in deciding which goals are most important and in reconciling conflicting values Research hypothesis — the hypothesis of interest to the researcher and the one he or she would like to see supported by the study results Research literature — set of published research studies on a particular topic Research method — overall research design and strategy Research paradigm — a perspective based on a set of assumptions, concepts, and values that are held by a community of researchers Research plan — the outline or plan that will be used in conducting the research study Research problem — An education issue or problem within a broad topic area Research proposal — a written document that summarizes the prior literature, identifies the research topic area and the research questions to be answered, and specifies the procedure that will be followed in obtaining an answer to these research questions Research purpose — see purpose of a research study Research question —see quantitative research question and see qualitative research question Research topic — the broad subject matter area to be investigated Researcher bias — obtaining results consistent with what the researcher wants to find Researcher-as-detective — metaphor applied to the researcher when searching for cause and effect Resources in education — see RIE Response rate — the percentage of people in a sample that participate in a research study Response set — the tendency to respond in a specific direction regardless of content Retrospective research — the researcher starts with the dependent variable and moves backward in time Retrospective questions — questions asking people to recall something from an earlier time RIE — an index of abstracts of research reports Rule of parsimony — preferring the most simple theory that works |
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SBack |
Sample — the set of elements taken from a larger population; a subset of cases drawn from a population Sampling — the process of drawing a sample from a population Sampling error — the difference between a sample statistic and a population parameter Sampling frame — a list of all the elements in a population Sampling with replacement — it is possible for elements to be selected more than once Sampling without replacement — it is not possible for elements to be selected more than once Sampling interval — the population size divided by the desired sample size; it is symbolized by “k” Sampling distribution — the theoretical probability distribution of the values of a statistic that results when all possible random samples of a particular size are drawn from a population Sampling error — the difference between a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter Sampling distribution of the mean — the theoretical probability distribution of the means of all possible random samples of a particular size drawn from a population Scatterplot — a graph used to depict the relationship between two quantitative variables Science — an approach for the generation of knowledge Secondary data — existing data originally collected or left behind at an earlier time by a different person for a different purpose Secondary source — a source that was created from primary sources, secondary sources, or some combination of the two Segmenting — dividing data into meaningful analytical units Selection-history effect — occurs when an event occurring between the pretest and posttest differentially affects the different comparison groups Selection-instrumentation effect — may exist if the nature of the dependent variable or the way it is measured varies across the nonequivalent groups Selection-maturation effect — occurs when different comparison groups experience a different rate of change on a maturation variable Selection-regression effect — may exist if the two groups are from different populations such as the experimental treatment group being from a population of individuals with low reading scores and the comparison group being from a population of individuals with high reading scores Selective coding — the final stage in grounded theory data analysis Self-report V a test-taking method in which the participants check or rate the degree to which various characteristics are descriptive of themselves Semantic differential — a scaling technique in which participants rate a series of objects or concepts Sequencing effects — biasing effects that can occur when each participant must participate in each experimental treatment condition Shared beliefs — the specific cultural conventions or statements that people who share a culture hold to be true or false Shared values — the culturally defined standards about what is good or bad or desirable or undesirable Significance level — the cutoff the researcher uses to decide when to reject the null hypothesis; also called the alpha level Significance testing — a commonly used synonym for hypothesis testing; NOTE: in significance or hypothesis testing, the researcher sets the significance (alpha) level, analyzes the data to obtain the probability value, and then the researcher compares the empirical probability value with the preset significance level to determine whether the finding is statistically significant Simple random sample — a sample drawn by a procedure where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Simple cases — when there is only one independent variable and one dependent variable Simple case of causal-comparative research — when there is one categorical independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable Simple case of correlational research — when there is one quantitative independent variable and one quantitative dependent variable Simple random sampling — the term usually used for sampling without replacement Simple regression — regression based on one dependent variable and one independent variable Single-case experimental designs — designs that use a single participant to investigate the effect of an experimental treatment condition Skewed — not symmetrical Snowball sampling — each research participant is asked to identify other potential research participants Social desirability response set — the tendency to provide answers that are socially desirable Sourcing – information that identifies the source or attribution of the document Spearman-Brown formula — a statistical formula used for correcting the split-half reliability coefficient (because of the shortened test length created by splitting the full length test into two equivalent halves) Special case of the general linear model — one of the “children” of a broader statistical procedure known as the general linear model (GLM) Split-half reliability — a measure of the consistency of the scores obtained from two equivalent halves of the same test Spurious relationship — when the relationship between two variables is due to one or more third variables Standard deviation — the square root of the variance Standard error — the standard deviation of a sampling distribution Standard scores — scores that have been converted from one scale to another to have a particular mean and standard deviation Standardization — presenting the same stimulus to all participants Standardized open-ended interview — a set of open-ended questions are asked in a specific order and exactly as worded Starting point — a randomly selected number between one and k States — distinguishable, but less enduring ways in which individuals vary Statistic — a numerical characteristic of a sample Statistical conclusion validity — the ability to infer that the independent and dependent variables are related and the strength of that relationship Statistically significant — a research finding is probably not attributable to chance; it’s the claim made when the evidence suggests an observed result was probably not just due to chance (i.e., there is a real relationship present) Stratification variable — the variable on which the population is divided Stratified sampling — dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups and then selecting a random sample from each group Structural equation modeling — see causal modeling Subculture — a culture embedded within a larger culture Summated rating scale — a multi-item scale that has the responses for each person summed into a single score Summative evaluation — evaluation focused on determining the overall effectiveness and usefulness of the evaluation object Survey research — a term applied to nonexperimental research based on questionnaires or interviews Synthesis – the selection, organization, and analysis of the materials collected Systematic error — an error that is present every time an instrument is used Systematic sample — a sample obtained by determining the sampling interval, selecting a random starting point between 1 and k, and then selecting every kth element |
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TBack |
Table of random numbers — a list of numbers that fall in a random order Target population — the larger population to whom the study results are to be generalized Telephone interview — an interview conducted over the phone Temporal validity — the extent to which the study results can be generalized across time Testing — measurement of educational variables Test-retest reliability — a measure of the consistency of scores over time Testing — any change in scores obtained on the second administration of a test as a result of having previously taken the test Tests in Print — A primary source of information about published tests Theoretical sensitivity — when a researcher is effective at thinking about what kinds of data need to be collected and what aspects of already collected data are the most important for the grounded theory Theoretical saturation — occurs when no new information or concepts are emerging from the data and the grounded theory has been validated Theoretical validity — the degree to which a theoretical explanation fits the data Theory — an explanation or an explanatory system that discusses how a phenomenon operates and why it operates as it does; a generalization or set of generalizations used systematically to explain some phenomenon Theory triangulation — the use of multiple theories and perspectives to help interpret and explain the data Think-aloud technique — has participants verbalize their thoughts and perceptions while engaged in an activity Third variable — a confounding extraneous variable Third variable problem — an observed relationship between two variables that may be due to an extraneous variable Three necessary conditions — the three things that must be present if you are to contend that causation has occurred Time-interval sampling — checking for events during specific time intervals Traits — distinguishable, relatively enduring ways in which one individual differs from another Transcription — transforming qualitative data into typed text Treatment variation validity — the ability to generalize across variations of the treatment Trend study — independent samples are taken from a population over time and the same questions are asked t-test for correlation coefficients — statistical test used to determine whether a correlation coefficient is statistically significant t-test for independent samples — statistical test used to determine whether the difference between the means of two groups is statistically significant t-test for regression coefficients — statistical test used to determine whether a regression coefficient is statistically significant Two-stage cluster sampling — a set of clusters is randomly selected and then a random sample of elements is drawn from each of the clusters selected in stage one Type I error — rejecting a true null hypothesis Type II error —failing to reject a false null hypothesis Type technique — manipulating the independent variable by varying the type of variable presented to the different comparison groups Typical case sampling — selecting what are believed to be average cases Typology — a classification system that breaks something down into different types or kinds |
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UBack |
Unrestricted sampling — the technical term used for sampling with replacement Upper limit — the largest number on a confidence interval Utilitarianism — an ethical approach that says judgments of the ethics of a study depend on the consequences the study has for the research participants and the benefits that may arise from the study |
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VBack |
Vagueness – uncertainty in the meaning of words or phrases Validation — the process of gathering evidence that supports inferences made on the basis of test scores Validity coefficient — a correlation coefficient computed to provide validity evidence, such as the correlation between test scores and criterion scores Validity — the accuracy of the inferences, interpretations, or actions made on the basis of test scores Validity evidence — empirical evidence and theoretical rationales that support the inferences or interpretations made from test scores Variable — a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories Variance — a measure of the average deviation from the mean in squared units |
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| WBack | Web surveys — participants read and complete a survey form that is developed for and located on the web Within-stage
mixed model research — quantitative and qualitative approaches
are mixed within one or more of the stages of research |
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YBack |
Y-intercept — the point where the regression line crosses the Y-axis |
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ZBack |
Z-score — a raw score that has been transformed into standard deviation units |
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